Notes on Plato

-Athenian high-status citizen
-displays an absorption of political and intellectual movements of the time
-educated readers of every following age have in some way been influenced by him
-"All philosophy is but a footnote to Plato" - Whitehead, 19th century philosopher
-in almost every age, there are philosophers who consider themselves Platonists
-Socrates had no writings of his own, so we're dealing with the first instance of preserved philosophical writings
-25-27 books accredited to him with certainty; among them:
-Apology of Socrates, Phaedo (Immortality of the Soul), Meno, Gorgias, Sophist, Republic (Justice)
-had a school called 'Academy', was open for centuries

central doctrines:
-associated with a few central doctrines he advocated in writings
-the world that appears to our senses is erroneous and flawed; there is a more real and perfect
realm of "forms" (entities eternal, changeless, and paradigmatic for things in our world)
-egs. goodness, beauty, equality, bigness, likeness unity, being, sameness, difference, change, and changelessness (often capitalized)
-nearly all his works work on the distinction between what is beautiful (just, good, etc)
and what is truly beautiful (just, good, etc.) and from which that which we call beautiful
gets its name and characteristics
-many explore ethical and practical consequences of us conceiving the world
in this twofold way
-urged to transform our values, realize the defectiveness of the observable world
-soul is different object from the body, can exist without it; can grasp the nature of the Forms when it is more detached from the corpus
-many works assert that philosophers - those who can distinguish what is good
(right, beautiful, equal etc) from things that are called good (etc.) - are in a
state to be ethically superior
-to understand what is good and why (and if we're not interested in such questions, how can we become good?) we must investigate the Form of Good

Plato's Puzzles
-often his works exhibit some degree of uncertainty, even towards the Forms
-Forms = "Hypotheses" in Phaedo for example
-in The Republic he says that the Form of Good is a mystery whose nature is elusive and
unknown
-puzzles raised about how any of the Forms can be known and talked about without falling into
contradiction, or about what it is to know anything, or to name anything
=this exploratory approach is what sets him apart from others ranked with him (Aquinas, Kant,
Aristotle) and often makes him the introduction into philosophy
-instead of presenting a set of doctrines, fully developed, he presents a few key ideas
with suggestions and problems about how they are to be interrogated
-readers of Platonic dialogue are drawn into thinking for themselves

Dialogue, Setting, Character
-nearly everything he wrote takes form of dialogue (again, distinguishes him from other philosophers) - one striking acception: his Apology, Socrates speaks in his defense
-philosophical discussions, debates, among a small number of interlocutors, many identified as
historical figures
-often begin with a depiction of the setting - visit to a prison, wealthy man's house, celebration
over drinks, a festival, visit to gym, stroll outside city walls, etc.
-as a group, they form a portrait of a social world - not purely intellectual exchanges between
characterless or socially unmarked speakers
-some exceptions where the speakers are quite characterless
-in many (though not all), he not only makes a philosophical discussion, but comments on social
world and specific characters

Socrates
-features in practically all his dialogues, except one Laws (his role is also small in others)
-appears in other peoples' works as well: Aristophanes' Cloud; Xenophon also wrote an
Apology, an account of the trial, and other works; fragment of other writers' works
-so when Plato wrote, he was contributing to a genre; also taking part in a literary debate on the kind of person Socrates was and the value of his intellectual debates
-Aristophanes' comedy is a bitter critique of Socrates and other leading figures, but from the rest of the "Socratic Discourses" (Aristotle's word for it), we get positive portrayals
-evidently Socrates inspired people, but the portraits by Plato, Aristophanes and Xenophon must
play the part of telling us today what he was like
-Clouds has the least value: not intended as a philosophical work; may contain a few lines of
characterization of features unique to Soc, for the most part, its an attack on the philosophical
type: long-haired, unwashed, amoral investigator into empirical issues
-Xenophon's works generally thought to lack the philosophical subtlety of Plato's; no one really
considers Xenophon a philosophical person
-not easy to see where he drew the line between himself and his teacher
-his use of "Socrates" in his dialogues should not be taken to mean that he is merely preserving
his teacher's words

Plato's Indirectness
-he never speaks through his own voice;
-while he writes speeches, discussions, etc, they are all made by other characters; therefore he himself never affirms, doubt, etc.
-never engaged in the popular genre of philosophical treatises
-can we attribute any philosophical doctrine to him?
-do we violate what he intended with his dialogues in associating him with philosophical doctrines?
-other important questions: ie. the importance of Socrates? why does he play such a large role
in some dialogues, but such a small role, or none, in others?
-we are tempted to read cautiously; eg. Plato's Republic; what is justice? ends with others agreeing with Socrates' view. - perhaps we should end there and not inquire further - minimalist approach; we don't attempt to delve into the mind of the author, and read only for the philosophical value
-but then we fail to understand what Plato intended. does he mean for us to agree with a character, or to see what he says as foolish; Plato wrote, therefore he is reaching out to a readership, what is he trying to convey?
-dialogues have certain characteristics that make them seem like they are trying to convince of
something (Forms, Immortality of Soul, etc.); eg. oen speaker may dominate and perservere with an idea, often meeting resistance at first, but finally convincing on the basis of arguments
-in one work Laws main speaker - visitor from Athens - proposes that laws are accompanied by "preludes" explaining their philosophical basis - ie. advocating for written texts as an educative tool
-does not mean he expects the works themselves to make people wise; they're intended to spur conversation and debate; in one of his works, Socrates warns against relying solely on books

Socrates as the Dominant Speaker
-if we take it that Plato is attempting to persuade us of the conclusions arrived at by his principal interlocuters, its easy to see why he chooses Socrates
-presumably, his readership consisted of many Soc-admirers; therefore would be predisposed to
believe that a character thus named has all the intellectual brilliance and moral passion of real Soc
-Plato makes efforts to make Socrates life-like (references to his trial and famous traits)
-aura of Socrates would give his words persuasive power
-perhaps also, Plato felt indebted to Soc for his own philosophical ideas and techniques
-shows that he shares in some ideas on important topics: presocratics all about nature; soc and
Plato all about politics, people, ethics

Links between the Dialogues
-continuity seen
-ie. sometimes some dialogue refers to another
-sometimes, the works build on eachother; Plato expects that his readers have referred to other
works
-eg. Socrates continually brings up Forms
-suggests that Plato is endorsing a doctrine

Plato and Politics
-he is essentially a political philosopher
-although he expresses the desire to shed one's body and live in the incorporeal world of forms
he devotes a lot of his works as well to practical matters, understanding our world, appreciating
its limited beauty and improving it
-Socrates, in Apology, appears to be a man not with his head in the clouds (cf. Aristophanes' Clouds); does not want to escape from everyday world but make it better; true art of politics
-Socrates in Republic devotes talk to ordinary social institutions: family, private property, etc.
-Laws all about voting, punishment, education, legislation, etc etc.
-in Republic he shows an antipathy to rule by the many; in Laws, he seems to advocate putting
power in the hands of people who aren't philosophers - has he changed his mind?

Why Dialogues?
-use of character and conversation enlivens work, awakes interest of readership, reaches further
-Dia (true) logos (reason)
-more dynamic, both sides presented, Plato likes being challenged, sees it as more enlightening
-prefers speech over writing - "written word is without father"
-when something is spoken, it can be responded to

What is Justice? (Republic)
-4 Virtues believed in in Greek times: Justice, temperance, wisdom, courage
-presents other stands on justice before his own
1) Simonides
-one must pay his debts; the traditional view
-Plato challenges it: suppose you let me borrow an AK-47, but then you get mad
at me; is it morally justified for me to give it back? you might harm someone!
=> leads to, we should help our friends and harm our enemies
2) Thrasymacus
-today we think he is a historical, rather than fictional, character, a sophist
-justice is the interest of the stronger; what is proclaimed by the law, since the stronger people make the laws
-in greek culture, laws = morality; laws set them apart from the animals
3) Glaucon
-also believed to exist
-injustice is the law of nature; to do injustice = good; to suffer it = bad
-"by nature" - as they should be
-human nature always inclines toward injustice; injustice is more free, and this
is how it should be
-tells Soc a myth: Gaias has a ring to make him invisible; soon becomes very
powerful, gets a good career, seduces queen
-we are all like Gaias, prefer to do injustice
-consider two people: perfectly just, perfectly unjust
-unjust guy will be happier
-now imagine every act according to nature; everyone is unjust; therefore there is
overall, more suffering than joy
=> creation of laws to prevent this situation
-law is nothing but convention/contract
4) Callicles
-justice should be a function of the strongest; strongest should rule
-but rules are made by the weak gathering to prevent domination by the strongest
-laws demanded by the weak
-all of these views are different faces of Greek social justice
-Socrates: to do injustice is more shameful than the suffer it.
-Glaucon asks Soc, "What's justice"; Socrates ensues to compare the justice of the state vs the justice in the individual soul
-method of answering = psychological method

State Justice vs Individual Justice
-Plato supposes the state is a big individual; psychological method explains
certain characteristics of the state as characteristics of the individual and vice
versa
-defines political justice as harmony in a structured political body
-ideal society has three main classes:
1) artisans (fishers, hunters, craftsmen, cultivators, producers)
2) Soldiers and guardians
-need courage and edu
3) Rulers (smallest class)
-society is just when relations between these three are right
-each class must perform its appropriate function and only that; each must be in
the right position of power in relation to the others
-Rulers rule, auxiliaries uphold rules, artisans must exercise nature-granted gifts
-chosen on basis of natural dispositions and education
-tries to show that the individual is like the state
-has three parts: rational part (seeks truth, responsible for philosophical
inclinations), spirited part (desires honour, is responsible for our anger and indignation), appetitive part (lusts after all sorts of things, money most of all)
-just individual is like a just society
-rational part rules, spirited part supports rule, appetitive part must
submit to rules
-in a just individual, entire soul aims at fulfilling desires of rationality
-relates to temperance: master of the better over the worse
-other similarities
-each of the state-class is dominated by each of the three parts of soul
-producers are spurred by their appetites, want for money;
warriors by their spirits, making them courageous,
rulers should be dominated by reason and wisdom
-in ideal state, rulers = philosophers
=three races: Bronze, silver, gold.

Three Analogies/Allegories (of the sun, the line, the cave)
-world is divided into two realms: visible (sensual) and intelligible (only grasped with minds)
-intelligible world consists of The Forms which exist in permanent relation to visible world,
and make it possible
-eg. Apple is red and sweet because of the existence of the invisible forms Redness and
Sweetness
-only philosophers, trained to grasp the Forms, can know anything (making them apt rulers); to be able rulers, they must know the Form of the Good (the source of all other forms)
-Plato can't describe Good directly, but says it is to the intelligible world, what the sun is to the visible world
-using cave allegory, Plato depicts philosopher's soul going through stages of cognition (represented by line) through visible into intelligible realm, finally grasping the Good-Form
-aim of edu is to put desire in the soul for truth, so that it aims to move into the intelligible world, to the Form of the Good

-philosophers = most able rulers since they, more than any other man, are ruled by their rationality; they have the most knowledge and are the most just
-cf the worst kind of ruler: tyrant, ruled entirely by non-rational appetite
-justice is worthwhile for its own sake
-presents a psychological portrait of the tyrant; argues that a just soul is happy and calm while
an unjust one is a tortured psyche
-also, while each of the three types (money-loving, honour-loving, truth-loving) believes his own life to be the more pleasant life, his own goals to be the most worthwhile, only philosopher can judge since he has experienced all three; therefore others should see that philosophical life is the best, more pleasurable and that therefore, to be just is most pleasurable

-end Republic with banning poets

-his political system is called "Utopia"
-merit-based monarchy/aristocracy, not based on genes; philosophers rule

-predicts that one day it will fall into "Themocracy" - guardians ruling, desire for honour rules
-Oligarchy: small group of rich people; desire for money rules
-Democracy: desire for freedom of choice rules
-to Plato, this means all desires are allowed and exist; a collection of all constitutions; chaos.
-political structure reflects on citizens
-if state is in chaos, man is in chaos.
-Tyranny: opposite of ideal state

-World of Forms
-eternal, immutable, immaterial, Only One.
-Greeks: if everything is changing, there can be no knowledge
-math is constant; Plato liked math for this reason

-Allegory of the Cave
-prisoners in a cave, everything chained, facing wall; fire behind them; have been seeing nothing but shadows since birth
-one day, one guy is released; he goes out, sees the fire, slowly starts to realize things, wanting
to go back; then goes out of the cave, starts to see other things; starts small; finally he sees things in moonlight, and then the sun!
-goes back to free and tell the other prisoners; they'll probably think he's crazy and kill him
-thought to be a reference to Socrates

SOURCES

Jankovic, Zoran. Class Lecture on Plato. PHI1104: Great Philosophers. University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

"Plato." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <>